Arctic
Polar geography — ice, permafrost, and rapid environmental change.
The Arctic spans the Arctic Ocean and surrounding coasts in North America, Greenland, Europe, and Russia. Sea ice, tundra, and permafrost define this polar region.
Arctic warming runs roughly twice the global average — shrinking ice, thawing permafrost, and opening shipping routes are changing ecosystems and geopolitics.
- Sea ice — seasonal cover affects albedo and global heat balance.
- Permafrost — frozen ground stores carbon; thaw releases methane and CO₂.
- Indigenous communities — hunting, fishing, and travel tied to ice conditions.
See also: Climate zones, Köppen climate classes.
- Glaciers of the Arctic: ecosystems at the edge of the world — Ice, tundra, and polar ecology.
- The impact of global warming on Arctic ice melt and sea level rise — Polar amplification and global consequences.