Table of Contents
Introduction to the Maritime Provinces Coastal Environment
The Maritime Provinces of Canada—Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island—represent one of North America’s most ecologically significant coastal regions. Stretching along the Atlantic Ocean and encompassing the remarkable Bay of Fundy, these provinces feature an extraordinary array of coastal ecosystems that support diverse marine life and provide essential services to both natural systems and human communities. Over 2.2 million people resided on the Atlantic Coast as of 2021, with the Maritime provinces accounting for approximately 73,000 people in coastal population growth.
Coastal ecosystems are characterized by high levels of biodiversity and productivity, with estuaries serving as areas where freshwater rivers meet the saltwater of the ocean, creating an environment that is home to a wide variety of species, including fish, shellfish, and birds. The unique geography of the Maritime Provinces, with their extensive coastlines, rocky shores, sandy beaches, salt marshes, and estuaries, creates a mosaic of habitats that sustain countless species and contribute significantly to regional economies through fishing, tourism, and other marine-related industries.
Understanding these coastal ecosystems is crucial not only for conservation efforts but also for maintaining the economic vitality and cultural heritage of the Maritime communities that have depended on the sea for generations. This comprehensive exploration examines the diverse coastal ecosystems, rich marine biodiversity, economic importance, environmental challenges, and conservation efforts that define the Maritime Provinces’ relationship with the ocean.
The Diverse Coastal Ecosystems of the Maritime Provinces
Rocky Shores and Intertidal Zones
The Maritime Provinces feature extensive rocky coastlines, particularly along Nova Scotia’s Atlantic shore and the Bay of Fundy. These rocky shores create complex intertidal zones that are alternately exposed and submerged by tidal action. The intertidal zone represents one of the most challenging environments for marine life, with organisms experiencing dramatic changes in temperature, salinity, wave action, and exposure to air and sunlight throughout each tidal cycle.
Rocky intertidal communities typically display distinct zonation patterns, with different species occupying specific vertical bands based on their tolerance to exposure. Barnacles, mussels, periwinkles, and various species of algae dominate these zones, creating a rich tapestry of life that provides food and habitat for numerous other species. The crevices and tide pools found in rocky shores serve as refuges for small fish, crabs, sea stars, and other invertebrates during low tide.
Sandy Beaches and Dune Systems
Sandy beaches represent another important coastal ecosystem type in the Maritime Provinces, particularly along Prince Edward Island’s extensive coastline and portions of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. While sandy beaches may appear less biologically diverse than rocky shores at first glance, they support specialized communities of organisms adapted to life in shifting sediments.
Terrestrial coastal habitats and ecosystems lie above the limit of the tides but are influenced by coastal processes, including cliffs, islands, sand dunes, shingle beaches, sand banks and other habitats in close proximity to the sea. Beach-dwelling invertebrates such as sand hoppers, clams, and various worm species burrow into the sand, while shorebirds patrol the beaches feeding on these organisms. Coastal dune systems, stabilized by specialized grasses and other vegetation, provide critical nesting habitat for birds and serve as natural barriers protecting inland areas from storm surges and erosion.
Estuaries and Salt Marshes
Coastal habitats and ecosystems in transitional waters are subjected to tides, wave action and sediment transport, which help to form habitats such as salt marshes and mangroves, with estuaries and deltas providing a link between the land and the sea where tidal water and freshwater river flows interact. The Maritime Provinces contain numerous estuaries where rivers meet the sea, creating highly productive transitional zones characterized by fluctuating salinity levels.
Salt marshes can help protect coastal populations from sea-level rise, with salt marshes covering 3,602 km² of coastal area in 2023. These wetland ecosystems are dominated by salt-tolerant grasses and other vegetation that trap sediments and organic matter, building up the marsh surface over time. Salt marshes serve as nursery areas for many commercially important fish species, provide habitat for waterfowl and other birds, filter pollutants from runoff, and sequester significant amounts of carbon.
The Tantramar Marshes along the New Brunswick-Nova Scotia border represent one of the largest salt marsh systems in North America, while numerous smaller marshes dot the coastlines throughout the region. These ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise and coastal development, making their conservation a priority for environmental managers.
The Bay of Fundy: A Unique Tidal Ecosystem
The Bay of Fundy, situated between Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, represents one of the world’s most remarkable coastal ecosystems. The tidal range in the Bay of Fundy is about 16 metres (52 ft), while the average tidal range worldwide is only one metre (3.3 ft). In one half-day tidal cycle, about 100 billion tonnes of water flows in and out of the bay, which is twice as much as the combined total flow of all the rivers of the world over the same period.
Fundy’s tides are the highest in the world because of an unusual combination of resonance (or seiche) and the shape of the bay. The natural period of oscillation in the Bay of Fundy is approximately 12 hours, which is also about the same length of time for one tidal oscillation (a high/low tide cycle), and this coinciding of the tide cycle and the bay oscillation period results in the much larger tidal ranges observed in the bay.
These extreme tides create unique ecological conditions. The massive movement of water stirs up nutrients from the seafloor, creating highly productive waters that support abundant plankton populations. This productivity forms the foundation of a rich food web that attracts numerous fish species, seabirds, and marine mammals. The intertidal zones exposed by these extreme tides can extend for kilometers, creating vast mudflats that serve as feeding grounds for millions of migratory shorebirds.
Most of the rivers that drain into the Bay of Fundy have a tidal bore, a wave front of the incoming tide that “bores” its way up a river against its normal flow, with notable tidal bores including those on the Petitcodiac, Maccan, St. Croix, and Kennetcook rivers. These tidal bores create unique riverine ecosystems where saltwater periodically intrudes far upstream, influencing the distribution of both freshwater and marine species.
Seagrass Meadows and Kelp Forests
Beneath the water’s surface, the Maritime Provinces’ coastal waters support important seagrass meadows and kelp forests. Known areas of seagrass meadows extended across 1,651 km² of coastal oceans in 2023. Seagrass meadows are underwater grasslands populated by marine flowering plants that provide nursery habitats and food sources for many fish species, crabs and sea turtles, as well as dugongs.
Kelp forests are underwater ecosystems found in cold, nutrient-rich waters, primarily in temperate regions. In the Maritime Provinces, kelp forests thrive in the cold Atlantic waters, particularly along exposed rocky coasts. These underwater forests provide three-dimensional habitat structure, supporting diverse communities of fish, invertebrates, and other marine organisms. Kelp also plays an important role in coastal protection by dampening wave energy and in carbon sequestration.
Conserving coastal ecosystems such as seagrass, salt marsh and kelp helps to protect nursery areas for fish stocks and to ensure the continuation of ecosystem services. Both seagrass meadows and kelp forests face threats from warming waters, pollution, and physical disturbance from coastal development and fishing activities.
Marine Life Diversity in Maritime Waters
Fish Species and Commercial Fisheries
The waters surrounding the Maritime Provinces support a remarkable diversity of fish species, ranging from small forage fish to large predatory species. Historically, Atlantic cod dominated the region’s fisheries and ecosystems, with the Grand Banks off Newfoundland and the Scotian Shelf representing some of the world’s most productive fishing grounds. However, overfishing led to the collapse of cod stocks in the early 1990s, fundamentally altering the marine ecosystem and the region’s fishing industry.
Today, the region’s fisheries target a diverse array of species. Haddock, pollock, and various flatfish species including halibut and flounder remain important groundfish. Pelagic species such as herring, mackerel, and tuna migrate through Maritime waters seasonally. Small forage fish like capelin and sand lance play crucial roles in the food web, serving as prey for larger fish, seabirds, and marine mammals.
Temperate marine communities have fewer species but generally higher productivity, well illustrated by commercial fishes, which constitute a very large biomass. The cold, nutrient-rich waters of the Atlantic create ideal conditions for high biological productivity, supporting the abundant fish populations that have sustained Maritime communities for centuries.
Shellfish and Invertebrate Diversity
The Maritime Provinces are renowned for their shellfish resources, which have become increasingly important to the regional economy as groundfish stocks have declined. The American lobster represents the most valuable fishery in the region, with Nova Scotia and New Brunswick ranking among the world’s top lobster producers. The cold Atlantic waters provide ideal habitat for these crustaceans, which inhabit rocky bottoms and are harvested using traditional trap-based methods.
Scallops represent another economically significant shellfish species, with both inshore and offshore scallop fisheries operating in Maritime waters. The Bay of Fundy and Georges Bank support particularly productive scallop populations. Snow crab, harvested in deeper offshore waters, has also become an important fishery in recent decades.
Bivalve mollusks including oysters, mussels, and clams support both wild harvest and aquaculture operations throughout the region. Prince Edward Island has developed a particularly strong mussel aquaculture industry, while oyster farming has expanded in various coastal bays and estuaries. These filter-feeding organisms not only provide economic value but also contribute to water quality by removing excess nutrients and particles from the water column.
Beyond commercially harvested species, Maritime waters support diverse invertebrate communities including sea stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, various crab species, shrimp, and countless other organisms that play essential roles in marine food webs and ecosystem functioning.
Marine Mammals: Whales, Seals, and Porpoises
The Maritime Provinces’ waters provide critical habitat for numerous marine mammal species, making the region one of the best places in North America for whale watching and marine mammal observation. The Bay of Fundy, in particular, serves as an important feeding ground for several whale species, attracted by the abundant plankton and fish populations supported by the bay’s unique tidal dynamics.
A result of shipping traffic has been the potential for increased collisions between ships and the critically endangered North Atlantic right whale, leading the Canadian Coast Guard to adjust shipping lanes crossing prime whale feeding areas at the entrance to the Bay of Fundy in 2003 to lessen the risk of collision. North Atlantic right whales, one of the world’s most endangered large whale species with fewer than 350 individuals remaining, depend on the Bay of Fundy as a critical summer feeding and nursing area.
Other whale species regularly observed in Maritime waters include humpback whales, fin whales, minke whales, and occasionally blue whales—the largest animals ever to exist on Earth. These baleen whales feed on the abundant plankton and small fish found in the region’s productive waters. Pilot whales and various dolphin species, including white-sided dolphins and white-beaked dolphins, also frequent these waters.
Harbor porpoises, the smallest cetaceans in the region, are commonly seen in coastal waters throughout the Maritime Provinces. These shy animals feed on small fish and squid in shallow waters.
Seal populations in the Maritime Provinces include harbor seals, grey seals, harp seals, and hooded seals. Harbor seals are year-round residents, commonly seen hauled out on rocks and beaches throughout the region. Grey seals, which breed on Sable Island and other locations off Nova Scotia, represent one of the world’s largest grey seal populations. Harp seals and hooded seals migrate through Maritime waters seasonally, with some individuals remaining in the region year-round.
Seabirds and Coastal Birds
The Maritime Provinces support diverse seabird populations, with species ranging from small storm-petrels to large gannets. The region’s islands, cliffs, and coastal areas provide essential nesting habitat for numerous seabird species, while the productive marine waters supply abundant food resources.
Atlantic puffins, with their distinctive colorful beaks, nest on several islands off the Nova Scotia and New Brunswick coasts, attracting thousands of tourists each year. These charismatic birds spend most of their lives at sea, returning to land only to breed. Other alcids including razorbills, common murres, and black guillemots also nest in the region.
Northern gannets, large white seabirds with black wingtips and yellowish heads, nest in large colonies on offshore islands. Their spectacular plunge-diving feeding behavior makes them a favorite among birdwatchers. Cormorants, including double-crested and great cormorants, are common along Maritime coasts, often seen perched on rocks with wings spread to dry.
The Bay of Fundy serves as a critical stopover site for millions of migratory shorebirds, particularly semipalmated sandpipers. These small birds, weighing less than an ounce, undertake remarkable migrations from Arctic breeding grounds to South American wintering areas. They stop in the Bay of Fundy to feed on the abundant mudflat invertebrates, doubling their body weight in preparation for their non-stop flight to South America.
Gulls, terns, and other coastal birds are abundant throughout the Maritime Provinces, with species including herring gulls, great black-backed gulls, common terns, Arctic terns, and the endangered piping plover, which nests on sandy beaches.
Plankton: The Foundation of Marine Food Webs
While less visible than fish, marine mammals, and seabirds, plankton represent the foundation of Maritime marine ecosystems. Phytoplankton—microscopic photosynthetic organisms including diatoms, dinoflagellates, and other algae—convert sunlight and nutrients into organic matter through photosynthesis, forming the base of the marine food web.
The cold, nutrient-rich waters of the Atlantic, combined with tidal mixing and upwelling, create ideal conditions for phytoplankton growth. Seasonal blooms of phytoplankton, particularly in spring and fall, turn the water greenish and support the entire marine ecosystem. Zooplankton, including copepods, krill, larval fish, and countless other small animals, feed on phytoplankton and in turn serve as food for larger organisms.
The Bay of Fundy’s extreme tides create particularly productive conditions by constantly mixing nutrients from the seafloor into surface waters where phytoplankton can access them. This productivity supports the dense concentrations of zooplankton that attract the region’s abundant fish, seabird, and whale populations.
Economic Importance of Marine Resources
Commercial Fishing Industry
The fishing industry has been central to the Maritime Provinces’ economy and culture for centuries, shaping communities, traditions, and ways of life throughout the region. Coastal capture fisheries from mangroves and coral reef habitats are estimated to be worth a minimum of $34 billion per year, and while the Maritime Provinces lack mangroves and coral reefs, their cold-water fisheries generate substantial economic value.
The lobster fishery represents the most valuable component of the Maritime fishing industry, with annual landings worth hundreds of millions of dollars. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick consistently rank among the world’s top lobster-producing regions, with the industry supporting thousands of fishers, processors, and related workers. The lobster fishery operates under strict management measures including seasonal closures, size limits, and trap limits designed to ensure sustainability.
Scallop fisheries, both inshore and offshore, contribute significantly to the regional economy. The offshore scallop fleet operates on Georges Bank and other offshore grounds, while inshore fisheries target scallops in coastal bays and along the shore. Snow crab has emerged as another valuable fishery in recent decades, with fishing occurring in deeper offshore waters.
Groundfish fisheries, while much reduced from their historical levels, continue to operate with strict quotas and management measures. Haddock, pollock, and various flatfish species are harvested, though at levels far below the peak years before the cod collapse. Pelagic fisheries targeting herring and mackerel supply both human consumption markets and bait for lobster fisheries.
The fishing industry extends beyond harvesting to include processing, transportation, marketing, and support services. Fish processing plants employ thousands of workers in coastal communities, while related industries including boat building, gear manufacturing, and marine services contribute to the regional economy.
Aquaculture Development
Aquaculture has grown significantly in the Maritime Provinces over recent decades, diversifying the marine economy and providing alternatives to wild capture fisheries. Salmon farming represents the largest aquaculture sector by value, with operations concentrated in the Bay of Fundy and along the Nova Scotia coast. These operations raise Atlantic salmon in net pens suspended in coastal waters, producing fish for domestic and international markets.
Mussel farming has become particularly important in Prince Edward Island, which produces the majority of Canada’s farmed mussels. Mussel aquaculture uses suspended rope or sock systems in sheltered bays and estuaries, with the mussels filtering plankton from the water as they grow. This form of aquaculture is considered relatively environmentally friendly, as it requires no feed inputs and can actually improve water quality.
Oyster farming has expanded throughout the region, with operations in various bays and estuaries. Both traditional bottom culture and modern suspended culture methods are employed. Oyster aquaculture not only produces valuable seafood but also provides ecosystem services through water filtration and habitat creation.
Other aquaculture species being developed in the Maritime Provinces include steelhead trout, Arctic char, sea cucumber, and various species of seaweed. Seaweed farming, in particular, shows promise as a sustainable industry that can provide products for food, cosmetics, and other applications while potentially helping to mitigate ocean acidification through carbon uptake.
Tourism and Recreation
The Maritime Provinces’ coastal ecosystems and marine life support a substantial tourism industry, attracting visitors from around the world. Whale watching has become a major attraction, particularly in the Bay of Fundy, where tourists can observe several whale species including the endangered North Atlantic right whale. Numerous tour operators offer boat-based whale watching excursions, contributing millions of dollars to the regional economy while raising awareness about marine conservation.
The Bay of Fundy’s extreme tides themselves represent a major tourist attraction. Visitors flock to locations like Hopewell Rocks in New Brunswick and Burntcoat Head in Nova Scotia to witness the dramatic tidal changes and walk on the ocean floor at low tide. Tidal bore rafting on rivers flowing into the Bay of Fundy offers adventure tourism opportunities, while the region’s fossil-rich cliffs attract geology enthusiasts.
Coastal recreation including swimming, beachcombing, kayaking, sailing, and sport fishing draws both residents and tourists. Prince Edward Island’s sandy beaches are particularly popular summer destinations. Sport fishing for species including striped bass, tuna, and various groundfish supports charter boat operations and related businesses.
Birdwatching tourism has grown as awareness of the region’s importance for migratory birds has increased. The Bay of Fundy’s role as a critical stopover for millions of shorebirds attracts birders from around the world, while seabird colonies and coastal bird diversity provide year-round birdwatching opportunities.
Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital
Marine and coastal ecosystems produce various services, including: provisioning services: fisheries, building materials; supporting services: life-cycle maintenance for both fauna and local, element and nutrient cycling; regulating services: carbon sequestration and storage, erosion prevention, waste-water treatment, moderation of extreme events; cultural services: tourism, recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits.
The total value of the services produced by marine and coastal ecosystems is valued at USD$ 29.5 trillion per year, which is worth more than the USA’s gross national product in 2015. While this global figure encompasses all marine and coastal ecosystems worldwide, it illustrates the immense economic value these systems provide beyond direct resource extraction.
In the Maritime Provinces, coastal ecosystems provide numerous valuable services often taken for granted. Salt marshes and other coastal wetlands filter pollutants from runoff, protecting water quality in coastal waters. These same ecosystems provide natural coastal protection, buffering inland areas from storm surges and wave action. The economic value of this coastal protection service has become increasingly apparent as climate change brings more frequent and intense storms.
Coastal ecosystems also play important roles in climate regulation through carbon sequestration. Salt marshes, seagrass meadows, and kelp forests all capture and store significant amounts of carbon, helping to mitigate climate change. These “blue carbon” ecosystems can sequester carbon at rates exceeding those of terrestrial forests.
The cultural and spiritual values associated with coastal ecosystems, while difficult to quantify economically, are deeply important to Maritime communities. The sea has shaped regional identity, traditions, and ways of life for generations, with coastal ecosystems providing settings for recreation, inspiration, and connection to nature and heritage.
Environmental Challenges Facing Maritime Coastal Ecosystems
Overfishing and Fisheries Management
Human activities affect marine life and marine habitats through overfishing, habitat loss, the introduction of invasive species, ocean pollution, ocean acidification and ocean warming, impacting marine ecosystems and food webs and may result in consequences as yet unrecognised for the biodiversity and continuation of marine life forms.
The collapse of Atlantic cod stocks in the early 1990s stands as one of the most dramatic examples of overfishing’s impacts. Once supporting one of the world’s largest fisheries, cod populations crashed due to decades of excessive fishing pressure, combined with environmental changes. The Canadian government imposed a moratorium on cod fishing in 1992, but stocks have been slow to recover, fundamentally altering the region’s marine ecosystem and fishing industry.
Moving offshore, pelagic marine systems are directly threatened by overfishing, with global fisheries landings peaking in the late 1980s but now declining despite increasing fishing effort, while fish biomass and average trophic level of fisheries landing are decreasing, leading to declines in marine biodiversity.
The cod collapse demonstrated how overfishing can trigger cascading effects throughout marine ecosystems. With cod populations depleted, their prey species including shrimp and crab increased, while species that competed with cod for food also benefited. These ecosystem changes have proven difficult to reverse, even with fishing pressure removed, suggesting that marine ecosystems can shift to alternative stable states.
Modern fisheries management in the Maritime Provinces employs various tools to prevent similar collapses, including catch quotas, seasonal closures, gear restrictions, and marine protected areas. However, challenges remain in balancing conservation needs with economic pressures, managing mixed-species fisheries, and accounting for ecosystem interactions and environmental changes in management decisions.
Pollution and Water Quality
Many rivers and estuaries have become the conduit for disposal of human effluent and the sea a dumping ground resulting in eutrophication, with estuaries in particular also receiving many polluting chemicals via river inputs and deposition from the atmospheric, which eventually reach the coastal seas, with some of the more toxic substances directly influencing the health of marine/coastal species and through this the coastal and marine food chain and the functioning of entire ecosystems.
Pollution from multiple sources threatens Maritime coastal ecosystems. Agricultural runoff carries excess nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilizers and animal waste, into coastal waters. These nutrients can trigger algal blooms that deplete oxygen when they decompose, creating “dead zones” where marine life cannot survive. While less severe than in some other regions, nutrient pollution affects various bays and estuaries throughout the Maritime Provinces.
Industrial pollution, though reduced from historical levels, continues to impact some areas. Legacy contamination from pulp and paper mills, fish processing plants, and other industries persists in sediments in some harbors and estuaries. Heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, and other toxic substances can accumulate in marine organisms, potentially affecting both ecosystem health and seafood safety.
Plastic pollution has emerged as a growing concern in Maritime waters, as in oceans worldwide. Plastic debris ranging from large items to microscopic particles has been found throughout the marine environment. Marine animals can become entangled in plastic debris or ingest plastic particles, with potentially harmful effects. Microplastics have been detected in various marine species in the region, raising concerns about ecosystem and human health impacts.
Aquaculture operations, while providing economic benefits, can contribute to localized pollution through waste feed, fish feces, and chemicals used in operations. Proper siting and management of aquaculture facilities is essential to minimize these impacts.
Climate Change Impacts
Marine and coastal ecosystems face significant threats from human activities, climate change, and pollution. Climate change represents perhaps the most significant long-term threat to Maritime coastal ecosystems, with multiple interconnected impacts already being observed and projected to intensify in coming decades.
Ocean warming is occurring in Atlantic Canadian waters, with sea surface temperatures rising and marine heat waves becoming more frequent. These temperature changes affect the distribution and abundance of marine species, with some cold-water species shifting northward while warm-water species expand their ranges into the region. Such shifts can disrupt established ecosystem relationships and affect fisheries targeting specific species.
Warming waters also affect the timing of biological events such as plankton blooms, fish spawning, and bird migration. If these events become mismatched—for example, if fish larvae hatch before their plankton food is available—it can have cascading effects through the food web.
Much of the carbon dioxide causing global warming and heat captured by global warming are absorbed by the ocean, with ocean chemistry changing through processes like ocean acidification which in turn threatens marine ecosystems. Ocean acidification, caused by absorption of excess atmospheric carbon dioxide, reduces the availability of carbonate ions that marine organisms need to build shells and skeletons. Shellfish, including commercially important species like lobster, scallops, and oysters, are particularly vulnerable to acidification. Early life stages of many marine organisms appear especially sensitive to acidification, potentially affecting recruitment and population dynamics.
Communities in many coastal areas of the country are at risk from rising sea levels, especially those living in low-lying areas. Sea-level rise threatens coastal communities and ecosystems throughout the Maritime Provinces. Low-lying areas including salt marshes, coastal wetlands, and developed shorelines face inundation as sea levels rise. Salt marshes may be able to keep pace with moderate sea-level rise by accumulating sediment and organic matter, but rapid rise or barriers to inland migration can lead to marsh loss.
Coastal erosion is accelerating in many areas due to the combination of sea-level rise, increased storm intensity, and reduced sea ice protection in winter. Communities face difficult decisions about whether to protect, accommodate, or retreat from eroding shorelines.
Changes in ocean circulation patterns, including potential weakening of the Gulf Stream, could have profound effects on Maritime climate and marine ecosystems. The region’s relatively mild climate compared to other areas at similar latitudes depends on warm water transported northward by the Gulf Stream. Changes to this circulation could affect both terrestrial and marine conditions.
Habitat Destruction and Coastal Development
Mangrove area has declined worldwide by more than one-third since 1950, and 60% of the world’s coral reefs are now immediately or directly threatened, with human development, aquaculture, and industrialization often leading to the destruction, replacement, or degradation of coastal habitats. While the Maritime Provinces lack mangroves and coral reefs, similar pressures affect their coastal habitats.
Coastal development for residential, commercial, and industrial purposes has resulted in the loss and degradation of coastal habitats throughout the region. Salt marshes have been particularly affected, with many filled or drained for development or agriculture. Coastal wetlands that once covered extensive areas have been reduced to fragments, diminishing their ecological functions and the services they provide.
Shoreline hardening through seawalls, riprap, and other structures, while protecting specific properties, can accelerate erosion elsewhere and eliminate natural coastal habitats. These structures prevent the natural landward migration of coastal ecosystems as sea levels rise, potentially leading to “coastal squeeze” where habitats are lost between rising seas and fixed barriers.
Dredging and filling activities in harbors and coastal areas destroy benthic habitats and can increase turbidity, affecting water quality and marine life. While regulations now limit such activities, historical impacts persist in many areas.
Bottom trawling, a fishing method that drags heavy gear across the seafloor, can damage benthic habitats and communities. While less intensive in coastal areas than on offshore fishing grounds, trawling impacts have affected some nearshore areas in the Maritime Provinces.
Invasive Species
Both coastal and marine habitats have seen an increase in the establishment of invasive, alien plant and animal species, representing a significant threat to the marine environment, especially in relation to fishing. Several invasive species have become established in Maritime coastal waters, with varying impacts on native ecosystems.
The European green crab, first detected in the Maritime Provinces in the 1950s, has become widespread throughout the region. These aggressive predators consume various shellfish and can damage eelgrass beds through their foraging activities. Green crabs have been implicated in declines of soft-shell clams in some areas and may compete with native species including rock crabs and lobsters.
Invasive tunicates, including clubbed tunicate and violet tunicate, have spread through Maritime waters, particularly affecting aquaculture operations. These filter-feeding organisms can form dense colonies on aquaculture gear, wild shellfish, and other substrates, competing with native species for food and space.
Various invasive seaweeds and other marine organisms have been introduced through ballast water discharge, hull fouling, and other vectors. While some have had limited impacts, others have the potential to alter native communities and ecosystem functioning.
Climate change may facilitate the establishment and spread of invasive species by creating more favorable conditions for warm-water species that previously could not survive Maritime winters. This interaction between climate change and invasive species represents an emerging challenge for ecosystem management.
Conservation Efforts and Marine Protection
Marine Protected Areas
Canada has promised to conserve or protect 25% of marine areas by 2025 and 30% by 2030, with 14.6% of Canada’s ocean and coastal areas protected or conserved in 2022. The Maritime Provinces have seen significant expansion of marine protected areas in recent years as part of Canada’s commitment to marine conservation.
The conserved area increased by nearly 44,000 km² from 2021 to 844,059 km², mainly because of the addition of the Eastern Canyons Conservation Area in the Scotian Shelf bioregion in the Atlantic Ocean, a new marine refuge that protects cold-water corals and deep-water marine frontier areas that have a limited history of fishing.
Several marine protected areas have been established in Maritime waters, each with specific conservation objectives. The Musquash Estuary Marine Protected Area in New Brunswick, established in 2006, protects an important eelgrass and salt marsh ecosystem. The Gully Marine Protected Area off Nova Scotia protects a submarine canyon that serves as important habitat for endangered northern bottlenose whales and diverse deep-sea communities.
Other protected areas include the Basin Head Marine Protected Area in Prince Edward Island, which protects unique Irish moss beds and the endemic giant Irish moss, and various Areas of Interest being considered for future protection. These protected areas employ different management approaches, from strict no-take reserves to areas allowing some sustainable activities.
Establishing and supporting Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) allows ecosystems to recover and thrive, with Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) used to balance conservation with the sustainable use of marine resources. Effective marine protected areas can provide multiple benefits including protecting biodiversity, preserving critical habitats, supporting fish stock recovery, and providing reference areas for scientific research.
Species at Risk Programs
Various programs aim to protect and recover endangered and threatened marine species in the Maritime Provinces. The North Atlantic right whale, perhaps the region’s most iconic endangered species, is the focus of intensive conservation efforts. Measures include shipping lane adjustments to reduce collision risk, fishing gear modifications to prevent entanglement, and restrictions on fishing activities in critical habitat areas during times when whales are present.
Leatherback sea turtles, which migrate through Maritime waters to feed on jellyfish, are protected under species at risk legislation. Research and monitoring programs track turtle movements and identify important habitat areas, while efforts to reduce bycatch in fisheries aim to minimize human-caused mortality.
The piping plover, a small shorebird that nests on sandy beaches, is protected through beach management programs that restrict human activities during nesting season. Volunteers monitor nests and help educate beach users about protecting these endangered birds.
Various fish species including Atlantic salmon, Atlantic sturgeon, and several populations of Atlantic cod are listed as species at risk, with recovery strategies developed to address threats and promote population recovery. These strategies typically include habitat protection, fishing restrictions, and research to better understand population status and limiting factors.
Habitat Restoration Initiatives
The United Nations has declared 2021–2030 the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, a call to action recognizing the need to massively accelerate global restoration of degraded ecosystems, to fight the climate heating crisis, enhance food security, provide clean water and protect biodiversity on the planet.
Various habitat restoration projects are underway in the Maritime Provinces, addressing past damage and enhancing ecosystem resilience. Salt marsh restoration projects aim to restore tidal flow to marshes that were diked or drained, allowing these valuable ecosystems to recover their ecological functions. Such projects can provide multiple benefits including improved fish habitat, enhanced coastal protection, and increased carbon sequestration.
Eelgrass restoration efforts seek to replant eelgrass in areas where it has been lost due to pollution, physical disturbance, or other factors. Eelgrass meadows provide critical habitat for juvenile fish and other marine life, and their restoration can help rebuild degraded coastal ecosystems.
River restoration projects, including dam removals and fish passage improvements, aim to restore connectivity between freshwater and marine environments. Such projects can benefit diadromous fish species like Atlantic salmon and gaspereau that migrate between fresh and salt water.
Oyster reef restoration has gained attention as a strategy for both ecosystem restoration and coastal protection. Oyster reefs provide habitat for numerous species, improve water quality through filtration, and can help protect shorelines from erosion. Several pilot projects are exploring oyster reef restoration in Maritime waters.
Sustainable Fisheries Management
Learning from past mistakes, particularly the cod collapse, fisheries management in the Maritime Provinces has evolved toward more precautionary and ecosystem-based approaches. Modern management incorporates scientific stock assessments, harvest control rules, and adaptive management that adjusts regulations based on monitoring results.
The lobster fishery, the region’s most valuable, operates under comprehensive management measures including limited entry, trap limits, seasonal closures, size limits, and protection of egg-bearing females. These measures have helped maintain healthy lobster populations even as fishing effort has increased. However, concerns about climate change impacts on lobster populations have prompted discussions about additional adaptive management measures.
Certification programs such as the Marine Stewardship Council provide market-based incentives for sustainable fishing practices. Several Maritime fisheries have achieved MSC certification, allowing them to market their products as sustainably harvested and potentially commanding premium prices.
Ecosystem-based fisheries management, which considers interactions among species and between fisheries and ecosystems, is increasingly being incorporated into management decisions. This approach recognizes that managing single species in isolation is insufficient and that broader ecosystem considerations must inform fisheries management.
Collaborative management approaches involving fishers, scientists, managers, and other stakeholders in decision-making have become more common. Such approaches can improve management effectiveness by incorporating local knowledge, building trust, and increasing compliance with regulations.
Climate Change Adaptation
Recognizing that climate change impacts are already occurring and will continue regardless of mitigation efforts, adaptation strategies are being developed for Maritime coastal ecosystems and communities. These strategies aim to enhance resilience and reduce vulnerability to climate change impacts.
Nature-based solutions that work with natural processes are increasingly favored over hard engineering approaches for coastal protection. Protecting and restoring salt marshes, dunes, and other natural coastal features can provide effective coastal protection while maintaining ecosystem functions. Such approaches are often more cost-effective and sustainable than seawalls and other hard structures.
Climate-smart conservation planning identifies areas likely to remain suitable habitat for key species under future climate scenarios and prioritizes these areas for protection. Such planning also considers the need for connectivity to allow species to shift their ranges as conditions change.
Assisted migration or translocation of species to more suitable habitats is being considered for some species, though this approach raises ecological and ethical questions. Monitoring programs track ecosystem changes and species responses to climate change, providing information needed for adaptive management.
Community-based adaptation initiatives help coastal communities prepare for climate change impacts including sea-level rise, increased storm intensity, and changes in marine resources. These initiatives may include developing evacuation plans, modifying infrastructure, diversifying local economies, and building social capital to enhance community resilience.
Research and Monitoring Programs
Effective conservation and management depend on sound scientific understanding of coastal ecosystems and marine life. Numerous research and monitoring programs operate in the Maritime Provinces, conducted by government agencies, universities, non-profit organizations, and collaborative partnerships.
Long-term monitoring programs track changes in water quality, plankton communities, fish populations, seabird colonies, and other ecosystem components. These programs provide essential baseline data and detect trends that inform management decisions. The Atlantic Zone Monitoring Program, for example, has collected oceanographic and plankton data throughout Atlantic Canadian waters for decades.
Stock assessment research provides the scientific foundation for fisheries management, using various methods including research vessel surveys, analysis of commercial catch data, and population modeling to estimate fish abundance and productivity. Ongoing research aims to improve assessment methods and incorporate ecosystem considerations.
Marine mammal research programs study population status, distribution, behavior, and threats to species including right whales, humpback whales, and seals. Photo-identification studies track individual whales over time, providing information on survival, reproduction, and movements. Acoustic monitoring uses underwater microphones to detect whale calls and track their presence in different areas.
Seabird monitoring programs track breeding success, population trends, and at-sea distribution of various seabird species. These programs can provide early warning of ecosystem changes, as seabirds are sensitive indicators of marine conditions.
Climate change research investigates how warming waters, ocean acidification, and other climate-related changes are affecting Maritime marine ecosystems. This research is essential for developing effective adaptation strategies and predicting future conditions.
Citizen science programs engage volunteers in data collection, expanding the scope of monitoring efforts while building public awareness and engagement with marine conservation. Programs include beach monitoring for marine debris, reporting of unusual species sightings, and participation in bird surveys.
The Role of Education and Public Engagement
Environmental Education Programs
Education plays a crucial role in fostering understanding and support for marine conservation. Numerous organizations and institutions in the Maritime Provinces offer environmental education programs focused on coastal ecosystems and marine life. These programs target various audiences from school children to adults, using diverse approaches including classroom presentations, field trips, interpretive centers, and hands-on activities.
The Huntsman Marine Science Centre in New Brunswick, for example, offers educational programs and operates a public aquarium showcasing Bay of Fundy marine life. Similar facilities throughout the region provide opportunities for people to learn about and connect with marine ecosystems.
School programs bring marine science into classrooms and take students into the field to experience coastal ecosystems firsthand. Such programs can inspire the next generation of marine scientists, conservationists, and informed citizens. Hands-on activities like beach seines, tide pool exploration, and water quality testing make marine science tangible and engaging for students.
University programs train the next generation of marine scientists and resource managers. Maritime universities including Dalhousie University, the University of New Brunswick, and others offer strong marine science programs that contribute both to education and research.
Community Engagement and Stewardship
Engaging coastal communities in conservation and stewardship is essential for long-term success. Community-based conservation initiatives empower local residents to take active roles in protecting and managing marine resources. Such initiatives can be more effective and sustainable than top-down approaches, as they build local capacity and ownership.
Coastal cleanup events mobilize volunteers to remove marine debris from beaches and shorelines, raising awareness about pollution while directly improving coastal conditions. These events have become popular throughout the Maritime Provinces, with thousands of volunteers participating annually.
Stewardship groups focused on specific watersheds, bays, or coastal areas work to protect and restore local ecosystems. These groups often combine monitoring, restoration projects, education, and advocacy, serving as important bridges between communities, scientists, and managers.
Indigenous communities in the Maritime Provinces maintain deep connections to coastal ecosystems and marine resources, with traditional knowledge accumulated over thousands of years. Incorporating Indigenous knowledge and perspectives into marine conservation and management can enhance effectiveness while respecting Indigenous rights and relationships with the sea. Collaborative management arrangements that include Indigenous communities are increasingly being developed.
Ecotourism and Interpretation
Well-designed ecotourism can support both conservation and local economies by providing economic incentives for protecting natural areas while educating visitors about ecosystems and conservation issues. The Maritime Provinces have developed various ecotourism offerings focused on coastal ecosystems and marine life.
Whale watching operations, when conducted responsibly following guidelines to minimize disturbance to whales, provide economic benefits while fostering appreciation for marine mammals and their conservation needs. Many operators include educational components in their tours, explaining whale biology, behavior, and conservation challenges.
Interpretive centers at various locations throughout the region provide information about local ecosystems, geology, and conservation issues. These centers serve as gateways to coastal areas, helping visitors understand and appreciate what they’re seeing while promoting responsible behavior.
Guided tours led by knowledgeable naturalists can enhance visitor experiences while ensuring that activities are conducted in ways that minimize impacts on sensitive ecosystems. Such tours might focus on tide pool exploration, bird watching, fossil hunting, or other activities that connect people with coastal nature.
Future Directions and Emerging Opportunities
Blue Economy Development
The concept of a “blue economy” envisions sustainable use of ocean resources that balances economic development with ecosystem health. The Maritime Provinces are exploring various blue economy opportunities that could provide economic benefits while supporting conservation goals.
Sustainable aquaculture development, including both finfish and shellfish farming as well as emerging sectors like seaweed cultivation, offers potential for economic growth. Ensuring that aquaculture develops sustainably requires careful siting, appropriate regulations, and ongoing monitoring to minimize environmental impacts.
Marine renewable energy, particularly tidal energy, represents a significant opportunity in the Bay of Fundy given its extreme tides. While tidal energy development faces technical and environmental challenges, successful development could provide clean energy while creating economic opportunities. Ensuring that such development proceeds in ways that minimize impacts on marine ecosystems requires careful planning and monitoring.
Marine biotechnology, including development of products from marine organisms for pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and other applications, represents an emerging sector. The Maritime Provinces’ diverse marine life could provide sources for novel compounds and products.
Sustainable tourism development can provide economic benefits while supporting conservation. Expanding ecotourism offerings, improving interpretation and education, and ensuring that tourism activities are managed sustainably can help communities benefit from their natural assets while protecting them for the future.
Technological Innovations
Advancing technology offers new tools for understanding, monitoring, and managing coastal ecosystems and marine life. Remote sensing using satellites and drones can monitor coastal conditions, track algal blooms, map habitats, and detect changes over time. These technologies provide cost-effective ways to monitor large areas that would be impractical to survey on the ground.
Autonomous underwater vehicles and remotely operated vehicles allow scientists to explore and monitor marine environments that are difficult or dangerous for human divers to access. These technologies are revealing previously unknown aspects of deep-sea and offshore ecosystems.
Environmental DNA (eDNA) analysis, which detects DNA shed by organisms into water, offers a powerful tool for monitoring biodiversity and detecting rare or elusive species. This technique can complement traditional survey methods and may be particularly useful for detecting invasive species or monitoring species at risk.
Acoustic monitoring technologies allow continuous monitoring of marine mammals and fish, providing data on their presence, abundance, and behavior. Networks of acoustic receivers can track movements of tagged animals, revealing migration patterns and habitat use.
Big data analytics and artificial intelligence are being applied to analyze the vast amounts of data generated by monitoring programs, potentially revealing patterns and relationships that would be difficult to detect through traditional analysis methods.
Integrated Coastal Zone Management
Against the background of damage and destruction, unsustainable exploitation and more recently the recognition of the implications of global warming, management and restoration of the zone have become more and more important, with the interrelated nature of the coast requiring an integrated response to these changes, including the restoration of damage caused by human activities, and addressing these issues in a balanced way calling for integrated coastal zone management based on methods for evaluation and assessment and on implementing restoration projects.
Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) approaches recognize that coastal areas involve complex interactions among ecological, social, and economic systems, and that effective management requires coordinating across sectors and jurisdictions. The Maritime Provinces are working to develop and implement ICZM approaches that can address the multiple, often competing, demands on coastal areas.
Marine spatial planning, which maps and plans for different uses of marine areas, represents one tool for integrated management. By identifying areas suitable for different activities and potential conflicts among uses, marine spatial planning can help balance conservation and development objectives.
Ecosystem-based management, which considers entire ecosystems rather than managing individual species or sectors in isolation, is increasingly recognized as necessary for effective coastal and marine management. This approach requires understanding ecosystem structure and function, identifying key ecosystem services, and managing human activities to maintain ecosystem health and resilience.
Collaborative governance approaches that bring together government agencies, Indigenous communities, industry, environmental organizations, and other stakeholders can improve management effectiveness by incorporating diverse perspectives and knowledge, building consensus, and enhancing implementation.
Building Resilience
Given the multiple stressors facing Maritime coastal ecosystems, building resilience—the capacity to absorb disturbance and reorganize while maintaining essential functions—is crucial. Resilient ecosystems are better able to withstand and recover from stresses including pollution, overfishing, climate change, and other impacts.
Protecting biodiversity enhances resilience by maintaining the variety of species and functional groups that allow ecosystems to respond to changing conditions. Diverse ecosystems typically show greater resilience than simplified ones.
Maintaining connectivity among habitats and populations allows species to move in response to changing conditions and maintains genetic diversity within populations. Protecting corridors and stepping-stone habitats that facilitate movement is important for resilience.
Reducing non-climate stressors such as pollution and overfishing can enhance ecosystem resilience to climate change. Healthy ecosystems are better able to cope with additional stresses than degraded ones.
Building social resilience in coastal communities is equally important. Diversifying local economies, strengthening social networks, maintaining cultural connections to the sea, and developing adaptive capacity all contribute to community resilience in the face of environmental and economic changes.
Conclusion: Charting a Sustainable Course
The coastal ecosystems and marine life of the Maritime Provinces represent invaluable natural heritage, providing essential ecological services, supporting regional economies, and enriching the lives of residents and visitors. From the dramatic tides of the Bay of Fundy to the productive fishing grounds of the Scotian Shelf, from salt marshes teeming with life to the majestic whales that migrate through these waters, the region’s marine environments are both remarkable and vulnerable.
Protecting marine biodiversity is crucial not only for maintaining ecological balance but also for supporting the economies and livelihoods of communities worldwide, particularly in regions dependent on marine resources. The Maritime Provinces exemplify this dependence, with coastal communities having relied on the sea for sustenance, livelihoods, and cultural identity for generations.
The challenges facing these ecosystems are significant and interconnected. Overfishing, pollution, habitat destruction, climate change, and other stressors threaten marine biodiversity and ecosystem health. The collapse of cod stocks demonstrated the consequences of unsustainable exploitation, while emerging threats like ocean acidification and warming waters present new challenges that require adaptive responses.
Yet there are reasons for hope. Conservation efforts are expanding, with growing networks of marine protected areas, species recovery programs, and habitat restoration initiatives. Fisheries management has evolved to incorporate ecosystem considerations and precautionary approaches. Communities, scientists, managers, and other stakeholders are increasingly working together to address shared challenges.
Moving forward, success will require sustained commitment to conservation, continued advancement of scientific understanding, adaptive management that responds to changing conditions, and engagement of diverse stakeholders in stewardship and decision-making. The blue economy offers opportunities to balance economic development with ecosystem health, but realizing this vision requires careful planning and strong environmental safeguards.
Education and public engagement are essential for building the understanding and support needed for long-term conservation success. When people understand the value of coastal ecosystems and marine life, and feel connected to these resources, they are more likely to support and participate in conservation efforts.
The Maritime Provinces stand at a crossroads. The choices made in coming years will determine whether these remarkable coastal ecosystems and the marine life they support will thrive for future generations or continue to decline. By embracing sustainable practices, protecting critical habitats, managing resources wisely, and building resilience to climate change, the region can chart a course toward a future where healthy marine ecosystems continue to support both nature and people.
The sea has shaped the Maritime Provinces’ past and present. With thoughtful stewardship, it can continue to enrich the region’s future, providing ecological, economic, and cultural benefits for generations to come. The responsibility to protect these precious marine resources belongs to all who depend on and value them—from fishers and coastal residents to scientists and policymakers, from Indigenous communities maintaining ancient connections to the sea to visitors drawn by the region’s natural beauty. Together, through collaborative effort and sustained commitment, a sustainable future for Maritime coastal ecosystems and marine life can be achieved.
Additional Resources
For those interested in learning more about Maritime coastal ecosystems and marine life, numerous resources are available:
- The Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada provides information on fisheries management, marine conservation, and ocean science
- The UN Environment Programme’s Regional Seas Programme offers global perspectives on marine conservation
- The Bay of Fundy Tourism Partnership provides information for visitors interested in experiencing the region’s unique tidal ecosystem
- Local aquariums, interpretive centers, and nature organizations throughout the Maritime Provinces offer educational programs and opportunities to learn about regional marine life
- Academic institutions including Dalhousie University’s Department of Oceanography conduct cutting-edge research on Maritime marine ecosystems
By staying informed, supporting conservation efforts, making sustainable choices, and fostering connections with coastal ecosystems, everyone can contribute to protecting the remarkable marine heritage of the Maritime Provinces.