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Indonesia stands as one of the world’s most geologically dynamic and hazard-prone nations, a reality shaped by its unique position along the Pacific Ring of Fire. This archipelagic country of over 17,000 islands faces an extraordinary convergence of natural hazards including earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions that have shaped both its landscape and the resilience of its people. Understanding these natural phenomena, their underlying causes, and the comprehensive strategies developed to mitigate their impacts is essential for anyone living in, visiting, or studying this remarkable nation.
Understanding Indonesia’s Position on the Pacific Ring of Fire
Indonesia’s geographic position on the Pacific “Ring of Fire” makes it one of the most earthquake-prone regions globally, as it sits atop several intersecting tectonic plates. This region is home to about 75% of the world’s active volcanoes and 90% of global earthquakes. The Ring of Fire is a vast horseshoe-shaped zone encircling the Pacific Ocean basin, characterized by intense seismic and volcanic activity resulting from the movement and interaction of tectonic plates.
Specifically, the archipelago straddles the boundaries of the Pacific Plate, the Indo-Australian Plate, and the Eurasian Plate, where complex interactions such as subduction, collision, and lateral sliding occur. These geological processes create the perfect conditions for the natural hazards that regularly affect Indonesia. The movement of these massive tectonic plates occurs at varying rates, with some areas experiencing relatively rapid displacement that generates significant geological stress.
The subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate beneath the Eurasian Plate, for instance, not only triggers regular earthquakes but also contributes to the region’s significant volcanic activity. This subduction zone is particularly important in understanding Indonesia’s vulnerability to multiple types of natural hazards, as the same geological processes that create earthquakes also fuel the volcanic systems that dot the Indonesian landscape.
The Earthquake Threat: Frequency, Magnitude, and Impact
Seismic Activity Patterns in Indonesia
Indonesia experiences an extraordinary level of seismic activity that far exceeds most other nations. In 2020, around 8.26 thousand earthquakes occurred in Indonesia, down from 11.5 thousand in the previous year. This means that on average, Indonesia experiences dozens of earthquakes every single day, though most are too small to be felt by the population or cause any damage.
On average, there is a magnitude 7 earthquake every year and one of magnitude >8 every 5 to 7 years. These larger earthquakes pose significant risks to infrastructure, human safety, and economic stability. The most powerful earthquakes can cause widespread destruction, trigger secondary hazards like landslides and liquefaction, and in coastal areas, generate devastating tsunamis.
Indonesia lies in the Pacific Ring of Fire and more than 60 percent of Indonesians live in earthquake-prone areas. This demographic reality means that earthquake preparedness is not just a governmental concern but a daily consideration for millions of Indonesian citizens who must balance the benefits of living in fertile, resource-rich areas with the inherent geological risks.
Tectonic Mechanisms Behind Indonesian Earthquakes
The earthquakes that strike Indonesia result from several different tectonic mechanisms. Subduction zone earthquakes occur when one tectonic plate slides beneath another, creating immense pressure that is periodically released in seismic events. These subduction earthquakes can be particularly powerful and are often capable of generating tsunamis when they occur beneath the ocean floor.
Shallow crustal earthquakes occur within the upper portions of the Earth’s crust and, while often smaller in magnitude than subduction earthquakes, can cause significant damage due to their proximity to populated areas. Strike-slip earthquakes, where plates slide horizontally past each other, also occur in Indonesia, particularly along major fault systems.
The depth of an earthquake significantly influences its impact. Shallow earthquakes, occurring within the first 70 kilometers of the Earth’s surface, tend to cause more intense shaking and damage in nearby areas. Deeper earthquakes, while potentially powerful, often have their energy dissipated before reaching the surface, resulting in less intense shaking despite high magnitudes.
Historical Earthquake Impacts
Indonesia’s history is marked by devastating earthquakes that have claimed thousands of lives and reshaped communities. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, which registered a magnitude of 9.1-9.3, stands as one of the most powerful earthquakes ever recorded. This megathrust earthquake occurred off the coast of Sumatra and triggered the catastrophic Indian Ocean tsunami that killed over 230,000 people across multiple countries, with Indonesia suffering the highest death toll.
More recent earthquakes have continued to test Indonesia’s disaster preparedness systems. The 2018 Lombok earthquake sequence, the Palu earthquake and tsunami, and numerous other significant seismic events have demonstrated both the ongoing vulnerability of Indonesian communities and the improvements in response capabilities developed over recent decades.
Building Codes and Earthquake-Resistant Infrastructure
Recognizing the persistent earthquake threat, Indonesia has developed and continues to refine building codes designed to improve structural resilience. Modern earthquake-resistant construction techniques incorporate flexible building designs, reinforced concrete and steel frameworks, base isolation systems, and other engineering solutions that allow structures to withstand seismic forces without catastrophic failure.
However, implementation of these building codes faces challenges, particularly in rural areas and informal settlements where construction may not follow official standards. Economic constraints, limited enforcement capacity, and the vast number of existing structures built before modern codes were established all contribute to ongoing vulnerability. Retrofitting older buildings to meet current earthquake safety standards represents a massive undertaking that will require sustained effort and investment over many years.
Tsunami Hazards and Coastal Vulnerability
How Tsunamis Form in Indonesian Waters
Tsunamis represent one of the most devastating secondary hazards associated with Indonesia’s seismic activity. These powerful ocean waves are most commonly generated by undersea earthquakes that cause vertical displacement of the seafloor. When an earthquake lifts or drops a section of the ocean floor, it displaces massive volumes of water, creating waves that radiate outward from the source at high speeds.
In the deep ocean, tsunami waves may be barely noticeable, traveling at speeds exceeding 800 kilometers per hour with wave heights of less than a meter. However, as these waves approach shallow coastal waters, they slow down and increase dramatically in height, sometimes reaching tens of meters before crashing onto shore with devastating force.
Not all undersea earthquakes generate tsunamis. The earthquake must be sufficiently powerful (generally magnitude 7.0 or greater), occur at relatively shallow depths, and involve significant vertical movement of the seafloor. Earthquakes that primarily involve horizontal motion are less likely to generate tsunamis, though they may still pose other significant hazards.
Non-Seismic Tsunami Triggers
On 22 December 2018, a flank of the Anak Krakatau volcano slid into the Sunda Strait, a strait between the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java. The flank collapse triggered a tsunami that killed at least 430 people. This was a so-called atypical tsunami event. Atypical because it was not triggered by an earthquake with vertical ground movement.
This tragic event highlighted a critical gap in tsunami early warning systems that had been designed primarily to detect earthquake-generated tsunamis. Volcanic flank collapses, underwater landslides, and other non-seismic events can also displace large volumes of water and generate destructive tsunamis, sometimes with little or no warning from traditional seismic monitoring systems.
Indonesia’s Tsunami Early Warning System
Indonesia Tsunami Early Warning System (InaTEWS) is an operational activity carried out by Agency for Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics as a part of governmental duty which shall provide meteorology, climatology, and geophysics service including public information, early warning, and specific information. This comprehensive system represents Indonesia’s primary defense against tsunami disasters.
The system includes a Land Observation System with Seismograph (165 stations), Accelerograph (238 stations) and an Ocean Observation System with Tide Gauge (134 stations), DART-Buoy (2 buoys). This extensive network of sensors provides real-time data that allows authorities to detect potential tsunami-generating earthquakes and issue warnings to coastal communities.
Earthquake news and tsunami warnings are issued less than five minutes after a quake, followed by updates or an all-clear. This rapid response capability is crucial for saving lives, as every minute counts when a tsunami may be approaching coastal areas. The system has been designed to provide warnings quickly enough to allow coastal residents time to evacuate to higher ground.
Recent Improvements and Ongoing Challenges
Indonesia is strengthening its tsunami early warning system. By 2024, 533 seismograph sensors will be in place, and the warning technology will be more reliable, timely, and accurate. This expansion represents a significant investment in disaster preparedness infrastructure and demonstrates Indonesia’s commitment to protecting its coastal populations.
Indonesia also developed Tsunami Modelling Data Base integrated into TOAST (Tsunami Observation and Simulation Terminal) System. The system enables simulation of tsunami scenarios, improving the ability to predict and prepare for potential threats. These technological advances allow authorities to better understand how tsunamis might behave in different coastal areas, informing evacuation planning and coastal development decisions.
Despite these improvements, challenges remain. 22 buoys were declared lost or damaged in 2012–2018. Maintaining sophisticated monitoring equipment in harsh marine environments requires ongoing investment and technical capacity. The 2018 tsunamis that struck Palu and the Sunda Strait revealed gaps in the warning system’s ability to detect and warn about atypical tsunami events, spurring additional research and system improvements.
Community Preparedness and Evacuation Planning
Technology alone cannot save lives; communities must be prepared to respond appropriately to tsunami warnings. The UNESCO-IOC tsunami readiness programme is currently implemented in 10 communities, working to comply with the 12 indicators of the tsunami readiness programme. This effort involves advocacy, community training, and the development of an emergency response team.
Effective tsunami preparedness includes clearly marked evacuation routes, designated assembly areas on high ground, regular evacuation drills, public education about natural warning signs (such as strong earthquakes or unusual ocean behavior), and community-based early warning systems that can disseminate alerts quickly to all residents, including those without access to modern communication technology.
This partnership has resulted in the development of tsunami hazard maps, the installation of evacuation signs, and the establishment of vertical evacuation routes. Schools and hotels have also been actively involved in these training and preparedness activities to ensure a comprehensive approach to disaster response. These practical measures translate scientific understanding and technological capabilities into concrete actions that can save lives when disaster strikes.
Volcanic Eruptions: Living with Fire Mountains
Indonesia’s Volcanic Landscape
Indonesia is home to around 130 active volcanoes, the most of any country in the world. These volcanoes are distributed across the archipelago, with particularly high concentrations in Java, Sumatra, and the Lesser Sunda Islands. This extraordinary volcanic activity results from the same tectonic processes that generate Indonesia’s frequent earthquakes—the subduction of oceanic plates beneath the continental crust creates conditions for magma formation and volcanic activity.
Indonesian volcanoes display a wide range of characteristics and behaviors. Some are relatively quiet, with infrequent eruptions separated by decades or centuries. Others are persistently active, with ongoing lava flows, ash emissions, or other volcanic phenomena. This diversity of volcanic behavior requires tailored monitoring and management approaches for different volcanoes.
Types of Volcanic Hazards
Volcanic eruptions can produce multiple types of hazards, each with distinct characteristics and risks. Pyroclastic flows are fast-moving currents of hot gas and volcanic matter that can travel down volcano slopes at speeds exceeding 100 kilometers per hour, incinerating everything in their path. These flows are among the most deadly volcanic hazards and can occur with little warning.
Lava flows, while typically slower-moving than pyroclastic flows, can destroy everything they encounter and are nearly impossible to stop once they begin. Volcanic ash clouds can disrupt air travel across vast regions, damage crops, contaminate water supplies, and cause respiratory problems for people and animals. Heavy ash fall can also cause buildings to collapse under the weight of accumulated material.
Lahars are volcanic mudflows that occur when volcanic material mixes with water from heavy rainfall, melting snow and ice, or crater lakes. These flows can travel long distances down river valleys, burying communities and infrastructure. Volcanic gases, including sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide, can pose health hazards and contribute to acid rain.
Major Indonesian Volcanoes
Mount Merapi
Mount Merapi, located in Central Java near the city of Yogyakarta, is one of Indonesia’s most active and dangerous volcanoes. The name “Merapi” means “Mountain of Fire,” a fitting description for a volcano that erupts regularly and has claimed thousands of lives throughout recorded history. Despite the risks, millions of people live on or near Merapi’s slopes, attracted by the fertile volcanic soils that support productive agriculture.
Merapi’s eruptions typically involve pyroclastic flows and lava dome collapses. The volcano is continuously monitored, and authorities have developed sophisticated evacuation procedures based on alert levels that reflect current volcanic activity. The 2010 eruption of Merapi killed over 350 people and displaced hundreds of thousands, demonstrating both the ongoing danger posed by the volcano and the challenges of managing volcanic risk in densely populated areas.
Mount Sinabung
Mount Sinabung in North Sumatra awakened from a 400-year period of dormancy in 2010, catching many by surprise. Since then, the volcano has remained active, with periodic eruptions producing pyroclastic flows, ash clouds, and lava flows. The renewed activity has permanently displaced thousands of residents from villages on the volcano’s slopes and created ongoing challenges for local authorities managing the volcanic threat.
Sinabung’s reawakening serves as a reminder that even volcanoes with long periods of dormancy can suddenly become active again. This reality complicates volcanic hazard assessment and land-use planning, as areas that have been safe for generations may suddenly become dangerous.
Mount Agung
Mount Agung in Bali is both a sacred site in Balinese Hinduism and one of Indonesia’s most dangerous volcanoes. The volcano’s 1963 eruption killed approximately 1,100 people and caused widespread destruction. After decades of relative quiet, Agung showed renewed signs of activity in 2017, leading to the evacuation of tens of thousands of people and temporary closure of Bali’s international airport.
The 2017-2019 eruption sequence, while less catastrophic than the 1963 event, demonstrated the economic impacts of volcanic activity in a major tourist destination. Airport closures stranded thousands of travelers and cost the tourism industry millions of dollars, illustrating how volcanic hazards can have far-reaching economic consequences beyond the immediate physical destruction.
Mount Kelud
Mount Kelud in East Java has a history of violent eruptions characterized by the explosive ejection of material from its crater lake. The volcano has erupted regularly throughout recorded history, with major eruptions occurring roughly every 15-30 years. Engineering efforts to drain the crater lake have reduced the risk of catastrophic lahars, but Kelud remains a significant threat to surrounding communities.
The 2014 eruption of Kelud produced a massive ash cloud that affected air travel across the region and blanketed communities with volcanic ash. The eruption demonstrated the effectiveness of Indonesia’s volcanic monitoring systems, as authorities were able to detect precursory activity and evacuate at-risk populations before the main eruption occurred.
Volcanic Monitoring and Early Warning
Indonesia operates an extensive volcanic monitoring network managed by the Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (PVMBG). This network includes seismometers to detect volcanic earthquakes, tiltmeters to measure ground deformation, gas sensors to monitor volcanic emissions, thermal cameras to detect heat anomalies, and visual observation posts staffed by trained observers.
Volcanoes are assigned alert levels based on their current activity, ranging from Level I (normal) to Level IV (major eruption imminent or in progress). These alert levels trigger specific response actions, including evacuation of defined zones, closure of access to dangerous areas, and mobilization of emergency response resources. The system allows for graduated responses that balance safety concerns with the need to minimize unnecessary disruption to communities and economic activities.
Indonesia has an early warning system for earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, along with evacuation protocols to protect the public. These protocols are regularly tested through drills and exercises, helping to ensure that communities know how to respond when volcanic activity escalates.
Living with Volcanic Risk
Despite the hazards, millions of Indonesians choose to live near active volcanoes, drawn by fertile soils, geothermal resources, and cultural connections to these dramatic landscapes. Volcanic activity provides highly fertile soil that supports agriculture in Indonesia. Communities living near volcanoes often take advantage of the nutrient-rich volcanic land for farming.
This relationship between volcanic hazards and benefits creates complex risk management challenges. Authorities must balance the need to protect populations from volcanic dangers with respect for community ties to ancestral lands and recognition of the economic benefits that volcanic areas provide. Successful volcanic risk management requires ongoing dialogue between scientists, government officials, and local communities to develop approaches that are both scientifically sound and socially acceptable.
Integrated Disaster Risk Reduction Strategies
National Disaster Management Framework
Indonesia has developed a comprehensive disaster management framework coordinated by the National Disaster Management Agency (BNPB) and implemented through regional and local disaster management agencies. This multi-level system allows for coordinated responses to disasters while enabling local adaptation to specific hazard profiles and community needs.
The disaster management framework emphasizes a shift from reactive disaster response to proactive disaster risk reduction. This approach recognizes that investments in preparedness, mitigation, and resilience-building are more cost-effective and save more lives than relying solely on emergency response after disasters occur.
Community-Based Disaster Risk Reduction
Mitigation efforts also include community education on how to respond to natural disasters and the development of earthquake-resistant infrastructure. Community-based approaches recognize that local residents are often the first responders in disaster situations and that community knowledge and capacity are critical assets in disaster risk reduction.
Effective community-based disaster risk reduction includes participatory hazard mapping, community-led evacuation planning, training of community emergency response teams, integration of disaster risk reduction into school curricula, and support for traditional knowledge and practices that enhance community resilience. These approaches empower communities to take ownership of their own safety while complementing government-led disaster management efforts.
The Role of Technology and Innovation
Advances in technology continue to enhance Indonesia’s disaster risk reduction capabilities. Satellite imagery and remote sensing provide valuable data for hazard mapping and monitoring. Mobile phone networks enable rapid dissemination of warnings to large populations. Social media platforms facilitate information sharing and coordination during emergencies. Geographic information systems (GIS) support sophisticated analysis of hazard exposure and vulnerability.
Artificial intelligence and machine learning are beginning to be applied to earthquake early warning, volcanic eruption forecasting, and tsunami modeling. These technologies have the potential to improve the speed and accuracy of warnings, though they must be carefully validated and integrated with existing systems to ensure reliability.
International Cooperation
BMKG is a tsunami service provider under UNESCO/IOC that responsible providing tsunami threat notification to the Indian Ocean member states. This role reflects Indonesia’s position as both a vulnerable nation and a leader in disaster risk reduction within the region.
International cooperation in disaster risk reduction takes many forms, including scientific collaboration on hazard research, technology transfer and capacity building, sharing of best practices in disaster management, financial and technical assistance for disaster risk reduction projects, and regional coordination of early warning systems. Indonesia both benefits from and contributes to these international efforts, sharing lessons learned from its extensive experience with natural hazards.
Economic and Social Impacts of Natural Hazards
Direct Economic Losses
Natural hazards impose substantial economic costs on Indonesia through destruction of infrastructure, housing, and productive assets. Major disasters can cause billions of dollars in direct losses, setting back development progress and straining government budgets. The costs of rebuilding after disasters often exceed the original construction costs, as damaged structures must be cleared and new construction must meet higher safety standards.
Volcanic eruptions can destroy agricultural land, damage buildings, and cause severe infrastructure damage. These direct impacts can devastate local economies, particularly in rural areas where agriculture is the primary livelihood and communities have limited financial reserves to absorb losses.
Indirect Economic Impacts
Additionally, frequent volcanic activity can affect the tourism sector, leading to substantial economic losses. Tourism is a major economic sector in Indonesia, and natural hazards can deter visitors, disrupt transportation, and damage tourism infrastructure. The economic ripple effects extend beyond the immediate disaster area, affecting supply chains, labor markets, and government revenues.
Business interruption costs can exceed direct physical damages, as enterprises lose revenue while operations are suspended. Small and medium enterprises, which form the backbone of Indonesia’s economy, are particularly vulnerable to these disruptions and may lack the resources to recover quickly.
Social and Human Impacts
Beyond economic losses, natural hazards impose profound social and human costs. Loss of life and injuries cause immeasurable suffering to families and communities. Displacement from homes and communities disrupts social networks and can lead to long-term psychological trauma. Children’s education is interrupted when schools are damaged or used as emergency shelters. Health systems are overwhelmed by disaster casualties while simultaneously dealing with damage to health facilities.
Vulnerable populations, including the poor, elderly, disabled, and marginalized groups, often suffer disproportionately from natural hazards. These groups may live in more hazard-prone areas, have less access to early warning information, face greater challenges in evacuating, and have fewer resources for recovery. Addressing these inequities is an essential component of effective disaster risk reduction.
Opportunities and Benefits from Geological Activity
Geothermal Energy Potential
Beyond the challenges posed by natural disasters, the Ring of Fire offers incredible natural resource potential, particularly in geothermal energy. Indonesia and the Philippines have significant potential in geothermal energy generation, using volcanic activity to produce electricity.
Indonesia possesses approximately 40% of the world’s geothermal energy potential, with an estimated capacity of 29,000 megawatts. Geothermal power plants harness heat from volcanic systems to generate clean, renewable electricity. This energy source provides baseload power that can operate continuously, unlike intermittent renewable sources like solar and wind. Expanding geothermal energy development can help Indonesia meet growing electricity demand while reducing greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on fossil fuels.
Mineral Resources
Volcanic and tectonic activity has created rich mineral deposits throughout Indonesia. The country possesses significant reserves of gold, copper, tin, nickel, and other valuable minerals. Mining these resources provides employment, government revenues, and export earnings, though it must be balanced against environmental and social concerns.
Tourism and Cultural Significance
Indonesia’s dramatic volcanic landscapes attract tourists from around the world. Volcanic areas offer opportunities for hiking, photography, and experiencing unique geological phenomena. Hot springs associated with volcanic activity support wellness tourism. Cultural tourism benefits from the sacred significance of volcanoes in Indonesian traditions and the distinctive cultures that have developed in volcanic regions.
Climate Change and Future Hazard Trends
Changing Hazard Patterns
Climate change is expected to influence some aspects of Indonesia’s natural hazard profile, though it does not directly affect tectonic processes. Sea level rise will increase coastal vulnerability to tsunamis by reducing the time available for evacuation and allowing tsunami waves to penetrate further inland. Changes in precipitation patterns may affect the frequency and intensity of volcanic lahars, which are triggered by heavy rainfall mobilizing volcanic deposits.
More intense rainfall events could increase landslide risks in volcanic and mountainous areas. Changes in ocean temperatures and currents might influence tsunami wave propagation, though these effects are not yet well understood. Climate change will also compound disaster impacts by stressing water resources, agricultural systems, and ecosystems, reducing the capacity of communities to absorb and recover from natural hazards.
Adaptation Strategies
Addressing the intersection of climate change and natural hazards requires integrated approaches that consider multiple stressors. Climate-resilient infrastructure must also be designed to withstand earthquakes and volcanic hazards. Early warning systems should account for how climate change might alter hazard patterns. Land-use planning must consider both current hazards and how these might evolve under different climate scenarios.
Future Directions in Disaster Risk Reduction
Advancing Scientific Understanding
Continued research is essential for improving hazard forecasting and risk assessment. Priority areas include better understanding of megathrust earthquake cycles and the potential for major events, improved volcanic eruption forecasting through integration of multiple monitoring techniques, enhanced tsunami modeling that accounts for complex coastal geometries and non-seismic triggers, and investigation of cascading hazards and compound events where multiple hazards occur simultaneously or in sequence.
Strengthening Institutional Capacity
Effective disaster risk reduction requires strong institutions at all levels of government. Priorities include sustained investment in monitoring infrastructure and technical capacity, improved coordination among agencies responsible for different aspects of disaster management, enhanced capacity of local governments to implement disaster risk reduction, and stronger enforcement of building codes and land-use regulations.
Building Community Resilience
Ultimately, resilience to natural hazards depends on the capacity of communities to prepare for, respond to, and recover from disasters. Building this resilience requires sustained engagement with communities, support for local knowledge and leadership, investment in education and awareness, development of diverse livelihoods that reduce vulnerability to specific hazards, and strengthening of social networks and community organizations that support collective action.
Conclusion: Living with Natural Hazards in Indonesia
Indonesia’s position along the Pacific Ring of Fire ensures that earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions will remain constant features of life in the archipelago. While these hazards cannot be prevented, their impacts can be substantially reduced through comprehensive disaster risk reduction strategies that combine scientific monitoring, early warning systems, resilient infrastructure, effective governance, and empowered communities.
The country has made significant progress in disaster risk reduction over recent decades, developing sophisticated monitoring and warning systems, strengthening building codes and land-use regulations, and building awareness and capacity at all levels of society. However, challenges remain, including the need to protect vulnerable populations, maintain and upgrade aging infrastructure, address the impacts of rapid urbanization and development, and adapt to changing hazard patterns influenced by climate change.
Success in managing Indonesia’s natural hazards requires sustained commitment and investment from government, civil society, the private sector, and international partners. It also requires recognition that disaster risk reduction is not just a technical challenge but a social and political one that must address underlying vulnerabilities and inequities. By continuing to advance scientific understanding, strengthen institutions, and build community resilience, Indonesia can reduce the toll of natural hazards while harnessing the opportunities that its dynamic geological setting provides.
For more information on earthquake preparedness and safety, visit the United States Geological Survey earthquake preparedness resources. To learn more about tsunami warning systems and coastal safety, explore the National Tsunami Warning Center. For comprehensive information on volcanic hazards and monitoring, consult the Volcano Discovery database. Additional resources on disaster risk reduction can be found through the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. Those interested in Indonesia’s specific disaster management efforts can visit the National Disaster Management Agency (BNPB) website.