Geography as a Determinant of Refugee Camp Design and Livability

The physical landscape upon which a refugee camp is established is far from a neutral backdrop. Terrain, climate, hydrology, and soil composition actively shape every aspect of camp life—from the initial site selection and layout to the long-term challenges of water supply, sanitation, shelter stability, and disease control. Understanding these geographic constraints is essential for humanitarian planners who must deliver aid effectively in some of the world’s most challenging environments. This article examines two contrasting geographic contexts—the arid highlands of Jordan and the coastal floodplains of Bangladesh—to illustrate how physical geography influences refugee camp development, sustainability, and the daily resilience of displaced populations.

Refugee Camps in Jordan: Arid Highlands and Water Scarcity

Jordan hosts one of the highest per-capita refugee populations in the world, with the majority of its registered refugees originating from Syria. The country’s physical geography—characterized by arid to semi-arid climate, rugged mountainous terrain in the west, and expansive desert in the east—imposes severe constraints on camp location and long-term habitability.

The Zaatari Camp: A Case Study in Arid-Zone Planning

Zaatari camp, located in northern Jordan near the Syrian border, sits on a flat, barren plateau approximately 80 kilometers east of Amman. The site was chosen for its proximity to the border and existing road networks, but its physical geography presents persistent difficulties. Annual rainfall is below 150 millimeters per year, and summer temperatures routinely exceed 40 degrees Celsius. The lack of natural shade and the prevalence of fine dust and sand require shelter designs that minimize heat gain and interior dust infiltration. Over time, residents have modified standard-issue tents and prefabricated shelters with locally sourced materials to improve thermal performance, a practical adaptation to the site’s harsh climatic reality.

Water supply in Zaatari depends almost entirely on trucked-in water from deep aquifers and municipal sources, as the camp’s location does not overlay a viable shallow groundwater supply. The logistical cost of water delivery is substantial, and the camp operates under strict per-person daily water rationing. Water scarcity is arguably the single most critical geographic constraint in Jordanian refugee camps, directly affecting hygiene, food preparation, and disease prevention efforts.

Azraq Camp: Built for Arid Extremes

The Azraq camp, established in 2014 in eastern Jordan, was designed from the outset to address the geographic challenges of the hyper-arid desert environment. Located in a remote, wind-swept plain, Azraq faces even more extreme conditions than Zaatari: temperatures can swing from near-freezing winter nights to over 45 degrees Celsius in summer. The camp layout incorporates windbreaks, prefabricated shelters with insulated panels, and a centralized water and wastewater network that minimizes per-capita water consumption through efficient fixtures and leak detection. The camp’s physical infrastructure is a direct response to the geographic reality of its location, demonstrating that site-specific design can mitigate—though never eliminate—the constraints imposed by an unforgiving landscape.

Geographic Constraints on Camp Expansion

Jordan’s mountainous terrain in the west and the lack of flat, accessible land in the east limit options for camp expansion. Many potential sites are either too steep for safe shelter placement, too far from supply routes, or located on land with competing agricultural or conservation uses. The physical geography of Jordan thus creates a binding constraint: the country simply does not have large tracts of flat, well-drained, and accessible land with adequate water resources to accommodate additional large-scale camps. This geographic reality has pushed humanitarian agencies toward alternative shelter strategies, including urban hosting and cash-based assistance in existing municipalities. The interplay between physical geography and refugee policy is evident: terrain and water availability have directly shaped Jordan’s shift toward more dispersed, non-camp responses for newer arrivals.

Refugee Camps in Bangladesh: Floodplains, Monsoons, and Landslides

Bangladesh presents a starkly different geographic context. The world’s largest river delta, dominated by the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna system, Bangladesh is characterized by low-lying floodplains, a dense network of rivers, and a tropical monsoon climate with extreme seasonal rainfall. The Cox’s Bazar district, which hosts the vast majority of Rohingya refugees from Myanmar, lies along the southeastern coast and features a complex mosaic of coastal plains, hills, and wetlands.

Kutupalong and the World’s Largest Refugee Camp

The Kutupalong-Balukhali camp complex in Cox’s Bazar is one of the most densely populated refugee settlements on Earth. The site was never formally planned; it grew rapidly and organically as hundreds of thousands of Rohingya fled violence in 2017. The physical geography of the area includes steep hills with unstable sandy-loam soils, narrow valleys, and clay-rich lowlands that become waterlogged during the monsoon season. The topographic complexity of the site presents immediate and severe challenges for safe shelter, drainage, and access.

During the monsoon season (June to October), the camp receives over 2,500 millimeters of rainfall. The steep hillsides, stripped of their natural forest cover, are highly susceptible to erosion and landslides. Each year, humanitarian agencies must invest in slope stabilization measures—including retaining walls, drainage channels, and the installation of bamboo check dams—to prevent catastrophic slope failures that could destroy hundreds of shelters. The rainy season also transforms the unpaved paths that crisscross the camp into muddy, impassable channels, severely restricting access for emergency vehicles and aid deliveries.

Flood Management and Drainage as Primary Infrastructure

In the Bangladesh context, drainage infrastructure is not an afterthought—it is the foundational system upon which all other camp infrastructure depends. The low-lying floodplain areas within the camp complex are prone to water pooling and prolonged inundation, creating ideal breeding conditions for disease vectors such as mosquitoes. Drainage channels, retention basins, and culverts must be designed and maintained to handle extreme rainfall events, and their failure during a storm can quickly trigger a public health emergency. The physical geography of the Cox’s Bazar region dictates that drainage is treated as a continuous, adaptive infrastructure challenge rather than a one-time installation.

Water Supply in a Water-Abundant Landscape

Unlike Jordan’s water-scarce environment, Bangladesh is water-rich—but the abundance of surface water creates its own set of geographic constraints. The high water table and the presence of shallow aquifers mean that tube wells can be installed relatively easily, but the risk of groundwater contamination from pit latrines and surface runoff is extremely high. The dense spatial configuration of the camp, combined with the porous soils and shallow groundwater, requires that water supply and sanitation infrastructure be planned in close coordination. Geographic proximity of water sources to sanitation facilities becomes a critical risk factor, and agencies must carefully manage the spatial layout to prevent fecal-oral disease transmission. The geographic context thus shifts from a problem of water scarcity (as in Jordan) to a problem of water quality and contamination risk.

Comparative Geographic Analysis: Jordan vs. Bangladesh

Comparing these two case studies reveals that physical geography does not simply present a uniform set of challenges to refugee camp planners; rather, it introduces distinct, region-specific constraints that require fundamentally different engineering and management responses.

Climate and Thermal Stress

In Jordan, extreme heat and high diurnal temperature variation demand shelter designs with high thermal mass, insulation, and effective shading. In Bangladesh, the primary climate risk is not heat but precipitation extremes and associated flooding. Thermal protection is the priority in Jordan; water management is the priority in Bangladesh. Both environments create health risks, but the specific disease burdens differ: heat-related illness and dehydration are major concerns in Jordan, while waterborne diseases and vector-borne illnesses such as dengue fever are elevated in Bangladesh.

Terrain and Accessibility

Jordan’s camps, while located in arid zones, generally occupy relatively flat terrain that allows for a grid-like layout of shelters and roads. This geometry simplifies service delivery, water trucking, and waste collection. Bangladesh’s camps, by contrast, are forced into steep, irregular terrain that precludes systematic grid layouts. The camps have grown organically along ridgelines and valleys, creating a complex, warren-like pattern that is extremely difficult to service with uniform sanitation, piped water, or emergency access routes. Topographic complexity in Bangladesh translates directly into higher operational costs and greater logistical difficulty.

Hydrology and Water Resources

The hydrologic difference is perhaps the most striking geographic contrast. Jordan’s camps exist in a state of chronic water scarcity, with per-capita water availability far below what humanitarian standards recommend. Every liter of water delivered is trucked or pumped over long distances, and conservation is a constant operational focus. In Bangladesh, water is physically abundant but chemically and biologically vulnerable to contamination. The challenge is not finding water but protecting it from the dense concentration of human waste and the heavy rainfall that can overwhelm sanitation systems. The geographic context thus inverts the water management problem: Jordan manages scarcity; Bangladesh manages contamination.

Seasonal Variability and Cyclonic Risk

Bangladesh adds an additional geographic hazard that Jordan does not face: tropical cyclones. The Cox’s Bazar coast is periodically threatened by cyclonic storm surges that can inundate low-lying coastal areas and destroy shelters. The geographic proximity of the camps to the Bay of Bengal introduces a seasonal, extreme-event risk that requires evacuation planning, storm-resistant shelter designs, and early warning systems. This is a dimension of physical geography that is entirely absent from the Jordan context, where seasonal hazards are limited to rare flash floods in wadis.

Geographic Factors That Govern Camp Planning Worldwide

The case studies from Jordan and Bangladesh illustrate several universal geographic principles that apply to refugee camp planning across diverse settings.

Slope and Terrain Stability

Camps established on slopes greater than 10-15 degrees require extensive terracing, retaining walls, and drainage management to prevent erosion and landslides. The cost of such infrastructure is high, and the maintenance burden is continuous. Steep terrain should be avoided whenever possible, but in crises such as the Rohingya influx, planners often have no alternative but to use available hillsides. Once terrain is occupied, the geographic constraint becomes permanent and must be managed indefinitely.

Soil Type and Drainage

Clay-rich, poorly draining soils exacerbate flooding and prolong the saturation of ground surfaces, creating muddy conditions that persist for weeks after rainfall. Sandy or loamy soils drain more quickly but may have lower bearing capacity and be more prone to erosion. Soil surveys are a critical, often under-resourced, part of site assessment. Soil geography directly affects every dimension of camp infrastructure, from road construction to latrine pit stability to the performance of rainwater drainage systems.

Water Table Depth

The depth and quality of the local water table determine whether groundwater can be used as a primary water supply or whether water must be trucked in. High water tables create sanitation risks because pit latrines can intersect the water table, while deep water tables increase the cost and energy demand of pumping. The hydrologic setting is perhaps the single most important geographic variable for long-term camp sustainability.

Proximity to Natural Hazards

Floodplains, active fault zones, cyclone-prone coasts, and landslide-susceptible slopes all represent geographic hazards that can turn a camp into a disaster zone during an extreme event. Camp planners must assess not only the normal-day conditions of a site but also its exposure to low-probability, high-consequence natural hazards. Geography determines the risk profile of a camp, and that profile evolves as the surrounding environment changes due to climate change, deforestation, or upstream land-use shifts.

Implications for Camp Management and Humanitarian Policy

Site Selection as a Binding Constraint

The initial site selection decision is the most consequential geographic decision in any refugee response. Once a camp is established, the physical geography of the site cannot be changed; it becomes a permanent constraint on all subsequent infrastructure and service delivery. The Jordan and Bangladesh case studies demonstrate that site selection is not a purely technical decision but is often shaped by political considerations, land availability, and the urgency of the crisis. When geographic factors are subordinated to immediate humanitarian access, the long-term costs are substantial.

Adaptive Infrastructure as a Necessity

No camp can be designed perfectly for its geographic context from the outset. Infrastructure must adapt over time as the camp grows, as seasonal conditions unfold, and as the impacts of erosion, sedimentation, and wear become apparent. Adaptive management is built into the geographic reality of refugee camps, particularly in high-intensity environments like Bangladesh’s monsoon-prone hillsides. Agencies must budget for ongoing maintenance, retrofitting, and seasonal preparedness rather than treating infrastructure as a one-time capital investment.

Climate Change Amplifying Geographic Risks

Climate change is intensifying many of the geographic constraints described in this article. In Jordan, temperatures are rising and precipitation is becoming more erratic, increasing water scarcity and heat stress. In Bangladesh, sea-level rise is raising the base elevation for storm surges, and monsoon rainfall patterns are becoming more intense, increasing the risk of severe flooding and landslides in camp areas. The physical geography of refugee camps is not static; it is evolving under the influence of global environmental change, and humanitarian planning must incorporate climate projections into site management strategies.

Policy Implications for Host Countries and Donors

Host countries are often reluctant to allocate land with favorable geographic conditions for refugee camps, preferring to use marginal, remote, or environmentally sensitive areas that have limited agricultural or development value. This geographic marginalization increases the cost and difficulty of humanitarian operations and places refugees in areas with higher hazard exposure. Donors and humanitarian agencies must advocate for site selection processes that integrate geographic criteria and must provide adequate funding for the infrastructure adaptations that geographic challenges demand. The long-term success of a refugee response depends, in no small part, on how well the physical geography of the camp is understood and respected.

The Geography of Human Resilience

While physical geography imposes powerful constraints on refugee camps, it is not determinative. The case studies from Jordan and Bangladesh also reveal the remarkable adaptability of refugees and humanitarian agencies in the face of geographic adversity. In Zaatari, residents have developed micro-enterprises that rely on greywater reuse and solar energy, turning a water-scarce environment into a space of innovation. In Kutupalong, volunteer slope monitors and community-based erosion patrols have developed local knowledge of terrain instability that complements formal engineering efforts.

The physical geography of a refugee camp matters profoundly, but it does not diminish the agency of those who live and work within it. Geographic constraints can be managed, adapted to, and sometimes even transformed into opportunities for more resilient infrastructure and community-led planning. The challenge for humanitarian professionals is to study the landscape as carefully as they study the population, and to design interventions that work with the grain of the terrain rather than fighting against it.

Humanitarian organizations including the UNHCR and the International Committee of the Red Cross have developed detailed site planning guidelines that incorporate geographic assessment tools, while the Médecins Sans Frontières field teams regularly publish operational reports on the intersection of geography and health outcomes in camp settings. For those seeking deeper technical guidance, the Sphere Handbook provides standards for water supply, sanitation, and shelter that explicitly account for geographic variability.

Ultimately, the influence of physical geography on refugee camps is a reminder that humanitarian action must be grounded in the specifics of place. No two camps are identical, and no single set of design solutions can be applied universally. The geography of the site—its slopes, soils, rainfall, temperatures, water resources, and hazard exposure—must be the starting point for planning, not an afterthought. When geographic realities are given the attention they deserve, refugee camps can become safer, more sustainable, and more dignified environments for the millions of people who have been displaced from their homes and must now build new lives upon unfamiliar ground.